Hippius, H. & Neundörfer, G. The discovery of Alzheimer’s disease. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 5, 101–108 (2003).
Mark, J. L. Role of Alzheimer’s protein is tangled. Science 238, 1352–1353 (1987).
Jack, C. R. Jr et al. Revised criteria for diagnosis and staging of Alzheimer’s disease: Alzheimer’s Association Workgroup. Alzheimers Dement. 20, 5143–5169 (2024).
van Dyck, C. H. et al. Lecanemab in early Alzheimer’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 388, 9–21 (2023).
Tao, Q.-Q. et al. Alzheimer’s disease early diagnostic and staging biomarkers revealed by large-scale cerebrospinal fluid and serum proteomic profiling. Innovation 5, 100544 (2024).
Jia, J. et al. Biomarker changes during 20 years preceding Alzheimer’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 712–722 (2024).
Feizpour, A. et al. Detection and staging of Alzheimer’s disease by plasma pTau217 on a high throughput immunoassay platform. EBioMedicine 109, 105405 (2024).
Kasuga, K. et al. Evaluation of plasma p-tau217 biomarkers in detecting amyloid pathology and predicting cognitive outcomes: observations from Japanese Alzheimer’s disease neuroimaging initiative cohort. J. Prev. Alzheimers Dis. 13, 100502 (2026).
Bennett, D. A. et al. Neuropathology of older persons without cognitive impairment from two community-based studies. Neurology 66, 1837–1844 (2006).
Ossenkoppele, R. et al. Amyloid and tau PET-positive cognitively unimpaired individuals are at high risk for future cognitive decline. Nat. Med. 28, 2381–2387 (2022).
Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M. & Vemuri, P. Resistance vs resilience to Alzheimer disease: clarifying terminology for preclinical studies. Neurology 90, 695–703 (2018).
Negro, D. & Opazo, P. Cognitive resilience in Alzheimer’s disease: from large-scale brain networks to synapses. Brain Commun. 6, fcae050 (2024).
Brown, C. A. et al. Evaluation of copathology and clinical trajectories in individuals with tau-clinical mismatch. JAMA Neurol. 83, 126–136 (2026).
Oh, H. S. et al. A cerebrospinal fluid synaptic protein biomarker for prediction of cognitive resilience versus decline in Alzheimer’s disease. Nat. Med. 31, 1592–1603 (2025).
Jansen, W. J. et al. Age and the association of dementia-related pathology with trajectories of cognitive decline. Neurobiol. Aging 61, 138–145 (2018).
Palpatzis, E. et al. Adaptive stress coping is associated with cognitive resilience in at-risk cognitively unimpaired older adults. Alzheimers Dement. 21, e70713 (2025).
Stiver, J. et al. Sleep duration promotes resistance and resilience to tau in older women at risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 21, e71051 (2025).
Bocancea, D. I. et al. Determinants of cognitive and brain resilience to tau pathology: a longitudinal analysis. Brain 146, 3719–3734 (2023).
Bocancea, D. I. et al. Measuring resilience and resistance in aging and Alzheimer disease using residual methods: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology 97, 474–488 (2021).
Dobyns, L. et al. An empirical measure of resilience explains individual differences in the effect of tau pathology on memory change in aging. Nat. Aging 3, 229–237 (2023).
Ossenkoppele, R. et al. Assessment of Demographic, genetic, and imaging variables associated with brain resilience and cognitive resilience to pathological tau in patients with Alzheimer disease. JAMA Neurol. 77, 632–642 (2020).
Wolf, D., Fischer, F. U. & Fellgiebel, A. Impact of resilience on the association between amyloid-β and longitudinal cognitive decline in cognitively healthy older adults. J. Alzheimers Dis. 70, 361–370 (2019).
Ramanan, V. K. et al. Coping with brain amyloid: genetic heterogeneity and cognitive resilience to Alzheimer’s pathophysiology. Acta Neuropathol. Commun. 9, 48 (2021).
Mansournia, M. A. & Altman, D. G. Population attributable fraction. BMJ 360, k757 (2018).
Harrell, F. E. Jr, Lee, K. L. & Mark, D. B. Multivariable prognostic models: issues in developing models, evaluating assumptions and adequacy, and measuring and reducing errors. Stat. Med. 15, 361–387 (1996).
Steyerberg, E. W. et al. Assessing the performance of prediction models: a framework for traditional and novel measures. Epidemiology 21, 128–138 (2010).
Stern, Y. et al. Whitepaper: defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimers Dement. 16, 1305–1311 (2020).
Hutcheon, J. A., Chiolero, A. & Hanley, J. A. Random measurement error and regression dilution bias. BMJ 340, c2289 (2010).
Jurek, A. M., Greenland, S., Maldonado, G. & Church, T. R. Proper interpretation of non-differential misclassification effects: expectations vs observations. Int. J. Epidemiol. 34, 680–687 (2005).
Petersen, R. C. et al. Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI): clinical characterization. Neurology 74, 201–209 (2010).
Weiner, M. W. et al. Recent publications from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative: reviewing progress toward improved AD clinical trials. Alzheimers Dement. 13, e1–e85 (2017).
Polanco, J. C. et al. Amyloid-β and tau complexity—towards improved biomarkers and targeted therapies. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 14, 22–39 (2018).
Shi, J. et al. Now and future: strategies for diagnosis, prevention and therapies for Alzheimer’s disease. Sci. Bull. 69, 3777–3784 (2024).
Jia, B., Xu, Y. & Zhu, X. Cognitive resilience in Alzheimer’s disease: mechanism and potential clinical intervention. Ageing Res. Rev. 106, 102711 (2025).
Gomez-Isla, T. & Frosch, M. P. Lesions without symptoms: understanding resilience to Alzheimer disease neuropathological changes. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 18, 323–332 (2022).
Taddei, R. N. & Duff, K. E. Synapse vulnerability and resilience across the clinical spectrum of dementias. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 21, 353–369 (2025).
Cai, H., Pang, Y., Fu, X., Ren, Z. & Jia, L. Plasma biomarkers predict Alzheimer’s disease before clinical onset in Chinese cohorts. Nat. Commun. 14, 6747 (2023).
Donohue, M. C. et al. The preclinical Alzheimer cognitive composite: measuring amyloid-related decline. JAMA Neurol. 71, 961–970 (2014).
Wang, J. et al. ADCOMS: a composite clinical outcome for prodromal Alzheimer’s disease trials. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 87, 993–999 (2016).
Crane, P. K. et al. Development and assessment of a composite score for memory in the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). Brain Imaging Behav. 6, 502–516 (2012).
Petersen, R. C. Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. J. Intern. Med. 256, 183–194 (2004).
McKhann, G. M. et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 7, 263–269 (2011).
Albert, M. S. et al. The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 7, 270–279 (2011).
Wang, Z.-B. et al. Differences between ante mortem Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers in predicting neuropathology at autopsy. Alzheimer Dement. 19, 3613–3624 (2023).
Mutel, S. et al. Resilience in Alzheimer’s disease: impact of operationalization and methodological choices. Alzheimers Dement. 21, e70185 (2025).
